Cultural reasons behind anime’s (animated movies) and manga`s (comics) popularity are quite complex, on the one hand it is the variety of the subject matters ranging from sport club stories aimed at boys, beautiful drawn shojo manga for young girls and Lady Comics (Reideezu komikku), erotic comics for women. (cf. Napier 2005, 19f.)
This wide range of manga ensures that virtually everyone reads them, from children to middle-aged salaried workers. Indeed, some estimates go as far as to suggest that 40 percent of material published in Japan is in manga form. As Frederik Schodt, the dean of of writers on manga in the West, puts it, “Japan is the first nation on earth where comics have become a full flegded medium of expression. (Napier 2005, 20)
On the other hand is
Japan […] a country that is tradionally more pictocentric than the cultures of the West, as is exemplified in its use of characters or ideograms, and anime and manga fit easily into a contemporary culture of the visual. (Napier 2005, 7)
Therefore, it is not surprising that these forms of expression are bound to cause misunderstandings, because unlike cartoons for children
anime does not deal only with what American viewers would regard as cartoon situations...[but] include everything that Western audiences are accustomed to seeing in life-action films. (Napier 2005, 6)
Even anime intended for younger children is often more complex than the typical Disney movie, including such delicate subjects as divorce, death, reincarnation and the search for harmony. The reason for this is the different view of “death” from religious points of view.
Die[Shintoismus] hauptsächlich auf das Diesseits ausgerichtet Religion betrachtet einen toten Körper als etwas Unreines. In den Augen des Shinto-Gläubigen wir ein Verstorbener zum Kami [Gott], den es vor allem zu besänftigen gilt ehe er Unruhe stiftet. (Diem 2006, 44)
In Buddhism on the other hand, the soul is trapped in a circle of death and rebirth. Life in between is full of suffering. Through enlightenment and the separation from the Ego and the present world one is able to break through this vicious circle. This enlighten beings are called Buddha (Butsu) and may go into Nirvana or choose to stay and show other beings the way. (cf. MZ 34, p. 43) Rebirth, however does not have to occur in this world:
Der Buddismus kennt 6 verschiedene Welten der Seelenwanderung: Die Hölle, die Welt der hungrigen Geister (Hunger), die Welt der Tiere (Unterdrückung), die Welt der Asura (kampfreudige Dämonen, die für Konflikt stehen), die Welt der Menschen (unsere) und den Himmel (Freude) Die Handlungen, die man in einem Leben vollbringt – das Karma – beeinflussen unmittelbar, in welcher Welt man im nächsten wiedergeboren wird. (Holzer 2006, 43)
The medium anime creates endless opportunities for the director, because, unlike traditional movie making, everything is subject to change. Every reality can be altered and deformed to suit his needs, without having to pay millions of dollars for special effects. In fact, deformation is an important aspect in almost any anime and even the characters get morphed on a regular basis, in order to enhance a specific feeling, for example, joy (see appendix 2 a/b). Another way to express a certain feeling is by adding some kind of symbol that represents the specific feeling. In case of shame or fear this is usually a drop, even the grade of the feeling can be displayed by either the size of the symbol or its number. (see appendix 2 c/d). The creativity of the director is not only limited to changes affecting the characters but he may also change the perspective or the colour of the background or decide to erase the complete background to achieve a specific notion. (see appendix 2 e/f). In Love Comedies, these effects are often combined to show the thoughts or the mind of the characters (see appendix 3 a - d). Nevertheless, animes are still movies and so the traditional camera techniques can also be applied (see appendix 3 e) or need to be maintained in order to create a realistic world (see appendix 3 f).
Susan Napier believes that it is important to emphasize the link between television and Japanese animation in terms of amine’s narrative structure and overall style. The weekly television format of most series gave rise to certain narrative structures, most notably serial plots, which allowed for longer, more episodic story lines than a cinematic format would have done. (Napier 2005, 17)
This contradicts the typically in 25 minutes completed story arc of typical
American cartoons, like Scooby Doo, where are you?, for example.
In order to show how identity is constructed and reflected in anime we will
now analyse a series which has been labelled a typical series for children and
has been a world wide success: Sailor Moon.
Sailor Moon is the story of five young girls who fight against the forces of darkness and date guys… at least if the viewer is watching the American version, because the title song has been altered for the American market in order to reflect the typical superhero story that every teenager dreams about (see appendix 4 a.). These girls are never afraid to take on a good fight and seek new powers like a female version of superman. If the critical viewer decides to compare this interpretation of the text with the original Japanese opening (see appendix 4 b), he is in for a big surprise: The American version is a hymn to power and righteousness (and the American way), whereas the original is a sad love song about someone who is to shy to convey her feelings to the person she loves. A young girl who is torn apart by her love (“my thoughts are about to short-circuit… my heart is a kaleidoscope”). The fact that a single woman in the Japanese and a group of girls in the American version sing the song emphasises this thesis even more. (compare audio example a und b). In order to understand these different culturally based approaches, the whole story of the text must be considered:
A long time ago there was a majestic kingdom on the moon called Silver Millenium. This kingdom was inhabited by human-like longer living life-forms, whose mission was to
[…] protect the sacred will passed down to us on the moon, the legendary Silver Crystal and to watch over and aid in the progression of Earth’s evolution. (Sailor Moon Season 1 Episode 44).
The people of the earth however, got greedy and their hate formed an evil spirit called Metalia. With the help of this evil spirit, the forces of Earth led by an evil witch called Queen Beryl attacked Silver Millenium because they were jealous of the moon people`s longevity. Before the attack was commenced, the prince of earth, Endymion, who was secretly in love with the moon princess Serenity, betrayed his fellow humans and warned Serenity about the impending war. His effort, however, was in vain: He got caught red handed by Beryl, who kills him and Serenity, when he refuses to marry Beryl and become the ruler of both, the moon and the earth. The sacred soldiers who protect the people of the moon are no match for the wrath of the humans and die. Queen Serenity, the incarnation of the Moon Goddess Serene and the mother of princess Serenity, despairs when seeing that her beloved daughter and her kingdom is gone and unleashes the power of the legendary Silver Crystal and seals the evil spirit of Metalia away, thereby sacrificing herself. (see Appendix 5)
The Silver Crystal can be used for peace if it’s used with the energy of a good heart. But, if it is used with the energy of an evil heart, it will become a terrible weapon. (Sailor Moon Season 1 Episode 44)
Knowing that Metalia is only temporary sealed away and wishing for her daughter
to live a peaceful life. Queen Serenity sends their souls back to Earth where
they are reborn as ordinary human beings into human families. (see Appendix
6a-c) Years later, the forces of the Dark Kingdom have returned to
search for the Silver Crystal and to accumulate human energy to resurrect Metalia.
Meanwhile, one of the counsellors of the “Silver Millennium”, a speaking cat
named Luna, informs has a fated meeting with a 14 year-old girl. This girl,
Usagi Tsukino, is Sailor Moon, one of the sacred warriors, who once protected
the moon. Luna informs her of her heritage and duty: To fight against the forces
of darkness, find the other four warriors and their princess Serenity.
Having followed the story so far, one has to ask two things: Why is a story
about rejected love, sacrifice, love and the search for identity labelled to
be for children and are there any typical Japanese elements in the series that
have been replaced or cut out for the western audience?
The first characterisation of a person in a movie starts with his name. This
rule becomes even more important when looking at the products of a country where
every name carries a specific meaning. In the example of Sailor Moon, the main
heroine is the reincarnation of the princess of the moon, thus, in the Japanese
version, her family name Tsukino is a combination of the noun “Tsuki” meaning
moon and “no” which is the indicator for the genitive in Japanese. Therefore,
the correct translation would be “of the moon.” As Japan is a highly spiritual
country, the folklore contains many different myths and legends, a very popular
one is about the “Tsuki-Yomi”, the moon-bunny (cf. Regina 2005, 10). Sailor
Moon`s first name, “Usagi” means “rabbit”. Therefore any Japanese can immediately
draw the connection, whereas the American audience remains clueless, because
the chosen name Serena, is only in style of her previous alter ego Princess
Serenity. In the German version, she is simply called “Bunny Tsukino,” but since
almost all of the other characters keep their original Japanese names, the German
viewer has to wonder why he never gets to know the heroine`s real name, because,
just like the American, he cannot draw the connection and thus has to assume
that “Bunny” is only a nickname, chosen to reflect the character`s personality
and appearance (her hairstyle resembles bunny ears and she is very fond of bunnies.
It is interesting to know that the other characters` names are either Americanized,
changed in spelling, or remained original, thereby creating a cultural mismatch,
impossible to decipher for a child and very confusing for an informed fan and
would be too large to be included completely in this essay: Ami Mizuno (“Friend
of Water”) becomes Amy Andersen; Rei Hino (Beauty/Spirit of the Fire) becomes
Raye Hino,and Minako Aino (“Beautiful Child of love”) turns just into Mina,
thereby “robbing” the character of any family ties. (cf. http://eternalsailormoon.org/help.html).
In the Japanese original of Sailor Moon, the girls are called Sailor
Senshi, which translates as soldiers or warriors. The “Sailor” is a reference
to the Sailor suits they are wearing and which resemble the many different school
uniforms the girls have to wear in Japan. Since these uniforms are quite unique,
the term Senshi has been skipped for the American market and replaced by the
neutral Scouts, thereby given the local children audience something to identify
with and to frighten any serious fan with the natural association of cookies.
Each Sailor “Senshi” represents a planet of the solar system and each planet
has its own element attributed, so Sailor Mars, Rei Hino, uses the element of
fire for her attacks (see appendix 6 d.). Her temper is a reference to the war
god Mars of Roman mythology. This is an example of how careful the whole series
has been planed and also a hint towards the fact that
[t]he creators for the most part are young Japanese artists in their twenties and thirties who have been exposed since birth to Western influences. Despite their Japanese overlay, many of these videos pay generous and excessively scrupulous homage to sources as diverse as American television cop shows of the seventies, European GlamRock fashions of the eighties and French new wave cinema from the sixties. (Napier 2005, p. 22)
Other examples of later seasons from the 200 episode-long text of “Sailor Moon” include the appearance of the Japanese version of the Holy Grail (see Sailor Moon S and appendix 6 e) and the revelation that a Sailor Moon is the legendary Messiah, who will save the world from darkness. The many religious influences in Japanese society, that have already been discussed (see Chapter II Religion), however, indicate that the status of the Messiah is not the same in the Asian world and just one god or celestial being among others. In Christianized America, calling anyone except Jesus Christ the Messiah, would be considered blasphemous and any series containing such absurdity would never be broadcasted... Therefore, in America, the grail is called “purity chalice” and not handed to the legendary Messiah, but to the legendary princess and the reference to the “Saviour” and the fine link between her and the grail has been completely cut out. (see Sailor Moon S American version and appendix 6 f. for comparison). One can see that the translators of the series are limited by cultural constraints and specialities, which do not only affect the names, but parts of the story as well.
The main characters in Sailor Moon are women. This creates an interesting discourse,
because these characters own more power than their male counterparts. Unlike
texts about superheroes where the focus is on a main male character, the heroines
in Sailor Moon do not get a power increase when they are angry, but rather when
they have lost someone they care about and are crying or when they realize that,
no matter what happens, they will never be alone. In the final battle of the
first Season, Sailor Moon admits, that she “ha[s] faith in this world that everybody
tried to protect” (see Appendix 6 g.) and the legendary Silver Crystal is summoned
by her tears for her beloved Mamoru (who is the reincarnated Prince Endymon).
Thus, her true identity as the Princess of the Moon, who the Sailor Warriors
have been looking for, is revealed. (cf. Sailor Moon – the story).
Nevertheless, Usagi does not only possess typical female attributes,
like strong will and caring love, but also has to face typical, as well as untypical
moments in the life of a teenager and evolves in the course of the series. She
is visited by her own daughter from the near future and has to experience the
joys and difficulties of motherhood at the age of 15 (cf. Sailor Moon R Season
2). The gender barrier is a bit blurry, because in Sailor Moon, there
are some extremely feminine male characters. This “Bishonen” are androgyn and
typical for Japan, a culture, where most men need to be idolized by hostesses.
Anime and manga features a complete subgenre about such characters and their
homosexual relationships: “Shonen-Ai”. Since Sailor Moon is aimed mostly at
a large female audience, such a love story is also a subplot of the story of
the first Season. (see appendix 6 h) The idea of such a relationship appearing
in series for young children (according to the broadcast time and the various
cuts) was something that could not be tolerated and, like the previous example,
where the “Messiah” was replaced by the “Princess”, the Western version was
changed. The androgyn male Zoysite became the female Zoysite and suddenly the
perfect American world could be maintained, because no child would ever notice
the missing breasts, since the female breast happens to be the part most American
cartoonists do not pay attention to at all. (cf. various Disney Movies). The
lesbian love of two of the Sailor Warriors, Sailor Uranus and Sailor
Neptune proved to be even trickier for the translators. They appeared first
in the third season (Sailor Moon S), but with the help of some new
dialogues and a little cutting, their fiery love was degraded into political
correct friendship.
The last season (Sailor Moon – Sailor Stars) even includes gender bending, because
the new Sailor Warriors, Sailor Star Fighter, Sailor Star Healer and Sailor
Star Maker (Sailor Star Lights) are men in their earth incarnation and turn
into women when they call upon their special powers. (see Appendix 7 a-d). This
transformation sequence is extremely controversial because unlike the transformation
sequences of traditional super heroes, the gender bending happens directly on
the screen. This is a sign that the series has matured, because the Star Lights
are interested in the original 5 Sailor Warriors, thereby even threatening the
fairytale like perfect relationship of the heroine Usagi and her beloved Mamoru
(Endymion) and the life of her child in the future (see Appendix 7 e.). In the
end, Usagi chooses Mamoru (see Appendix 7 f), but before that happens she and
the rest of the warriors do not only have to face their strongest enemy, Sailor
Galaxia, but must also decide what sacrifice they are willing to give in order
to save the future. Sailor Uranus and Sailor Neptune, for example, kill their
best friends, Sailor Pluto and Sailor Saturn in order to distract Galaxia. Sailor
Saturn is still a child, so in a sense even the gruesome act of child killing
and the use of children as soldiers is either consciously or subconsciously
implanted into the story (see Appendix 8 a – d). The act of giving a child such
power has also a positive side, because in World War II and any war for that
matter, it is the children who suffer most as they have no power to protect
themselves and the people, who are important to them. This storyline proved
to be too provocative for the American market and was never broadcasted.
In Sailor Moon, the evil protagonists are usually dominated by women. Therefore,
Sailor Moon can be interpreted as a form of escapism for the female audience
from a patriarchal Japanese society. This interpretation would be one-sided,
however, because Sailor Moon also includes many parts, which are appealing to
a male audience, including nudity, violence and dramatic fights. (see Appendix
8 e – g). The fights, as well as the whole series, include a lot of symbolism,
impossible to understand for a typical American child. In the climatic final
battle between Sailor Moon in her eternal incarnation and Galaxia, who is controlled
by the pure Chaos in the galaxy, both combatants use swords. Swords are phallic
symbols and when Galaxia is stabbed by the sword (see Appendix 8 h) this is
not only an indication of the wider interpretation of the term gender in Sailor
Moon, because it is women who wield those swords, but also a religious statement
as “Shinto[ism] is essentially a sword cult… [t]he sword is a symbol of purity.”
(Bornoff 1991, 87). Keeping this statement in mind, it is quite interesting
how the fight continues, because both swords break (see Appendix 9 a - b). This
may either be understood as a sign that the feminine characteristics dominate
the masculine, as well as the fact that in a world, where love is the dominant
power, religions are obsolete.
Sailor Moon is not an anime for little children, as the high amount of violence,
as well as the complex story, the blurring of gender and the search for identity,
give the series some grave topics, which are aimed rather at teenagers as these
are also on the search of what they want to do with their lives. Therefore,
the text of Sailor Moon can be read as some sort of initiation story, as the
protagonists mature during the story. The specific cultural rituals and myth
entwined within the story and the high level of symbolism make it even for this
group impossible to grasp all the serie`s details, thereby providing a challenge
for translators as well as for academic scholars, who are willing to follow
the interesting plot and ignore the typical “monster-of-week like” episodes
included to stretch the original manga story to a series of five running seasons
with over 200 episodes and 3 movies.
Sailor Moon belongs to a genre called “Magical Girl.” As the analysis has shown,
even such an anime can not be easily adopted for the Western markets and is
usually cut and reduced to its basics and if these basics are non-conform with
the specific culture the anime is translated into, there will always be a reinterpretation
of the text with the help of new dialogues, songs and synchronic speakers.
Observing the way the characters in anime and manga are drawn, one fact is quite obvious: The characters do not resemble the Japanese at all. The previous research has shown that the Japanese have huge identity problems and so it is no surprise that they need some sort of identification figure, which does not remind them of their emotional and physical problems, as Japanese people have a relatively small build as the tone of their hair is always dark, while most Japanese women have a smaller bust measurement than their western equivalents. Famous anime producer Hayao Miyazaki words reflect this idea: “The Japanese hate their own faces.” (Napier 2005, 25)
The Japanese animators and their audiences [are] looking “on the other side of the mirror”, particularly at America, and drawing from that world to create “separate from the reality of present day Japan, some other world.” (isekai) (Napier 2005, 25f.)
No matter how hard the Japanese try, some cultural influences will always remain
in their animated works, because, as one has seen, a reflection always contains
parts of the original item being reflected. It may be this hybridity which enables
both, Japanese and non- Japanese people, to try on a variety of which might
be called “postethic” identities (cf. Napier 2005, p. 25), because it is not
the Japanese alone who search for more varied forms of electronic entertainment,
who long for an “anywhere”, or who are tired of their own faces. (Napier 2005,
25). This universality or statelessness, as Napier refers to, is a vast subject
to explore. Communication between two different cultures is always subject to
prejudices and a total universal culture can never be truly achieved, as one
culture will always appear inferior in this hierarchical construct. The resulting
new multiculture will be torn apart by the individual cultures which are combined.
The difficulties emerging from the multi-religious background in Japanese society
should be considered a first warning.
~ Allisson, Anne (1994). Nightwork. Sexuality, Pleasure, and Corporate Masculinity in a Tokyo Hostess Club. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
~ Beineix, Jean-Jacques (2003). Otaku – Eine Dokumentation. Cargo Films. German Edition (2003) OVA Films.
~ Bornoff, Nicholas (1991). Pink samurai: the pursuit and politics of sex in Japan. London: GraftonBooks.
~ Diem, Angelika (2005). Lolikon und Love Hotels – Japan und das älteste Gewerbe der Welt. In: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. Sonderheft 1/2005 Thema Erotik. Herausgeber: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Diem, Angelika (2006). Tod und Begräbnisriten in Japan. in: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. 6. Jahrgang. Ausgabe 34: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Holzer, Steffi (2002). In: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. 2. Jahrgang. Ausgabe 8: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Holzer, Steffi (2005). Penis-Parade in Kawasaki. In: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. Sonderheft 1/2005 Thema Erotik. Herausgeber: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Holzer, Steffi (2006). Der Tod und Danach. In: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. 6. Jahrgang. Ausgabe 34: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Napier, Susan Joliffe (2005). Anime from Akira to Howls Moving Castle; experiencing contemporary Japanese animation. Updated ed. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
~ Regina (2002). In: MangasZene – Fachmagazin für Manga, Anime, Lifestyle und mehr. 5. Jahrgang. Ausgabe 29: Erbstößer, Lars. Köln: MangasZene/Erstößer & Holzer GbR.
~ Takahashi, Rumiko/Kitty Films (1981). Urusei Yatsura TV Series Vol.1. English Edition (2000) Animeigo. (booklet 1).
~ Yamada, Haru (1997). Different Games, Different Rules. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Buddhism:
http://www.bpb.de/files/X539D3.pdf#search=%22Buddhismus%20und%20Sex%22
Confucianism:
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konfuzianismus
Sailor Moon:
http://eternalsailormoon.org/help.html
©Fujisawa, Toru/KODANSHA Ltd. (1994). GTO Vol, 12. German Edition. (2004) Köln: Egmont Ehapa Verlag GmbH.
©Kobayashi, Jin/KODANSHA Ltd.(2005). School Rumble. German Edition.(2006) Tokyopop. Marvelous Entertainment. Sotsu Agency TV Tokyo.
©Mita, Ryuusuke/Kadokawa Shoten Publishing Co. Ltd./Victor Entertainment Inc. (1993) Dragon Half. German Edition. (2006) ADV Films.
©Takeuchi, Naoko/Toei Co., Ltd & Video Co. Ltd.. (1991 -1995) Bishojo Senshi Sailor Moon. English and Japanese Edition (2004). Geneon. Pioneer.
©Yuki, Kaori/Hakusensha Angel Sanctuary Committee (2000). Angel Sanctuary. German Edition (2001). OVA Films.
Die Zusammenstellung der folgenden Titel illustriert das Konzept des Webportals. Jeder Benutzer sei angeregt, seine eigene Zusammenstellung von essentials zu überlegen.
Angelika Kubanek, November 2006
~ Ackroyd, Peter: London – The biography. London 2005 (broschiert).
~ Albrecht, Juerg et al: Kultur Nicht Verstehen. Zürich 2005.
~ Andruchowysch, Juri et al: Mein Europa. Frankfurt 2005.
~ Balibar, Etienne: We, the people of Europe? Reflections on Transnational
Citizenship. Princeton 2004.
~ Berger, John: Ways of seeing. 1972, immer wieder neu aufgelegt.
~ Berger, John: The Szum and the Ching. In:ders.: Here is where
we meet. London 2005
~ Büscher, Wolfgang: Deutschland, eine Reise. Berlin 2005.
~ Burke, Peter: Languages and Communities in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge
2004.
~ Girtler, Roland: Abenteuer Grenze. Münster 2006.
~ Hunfeld, Hans: Fremdheit als Lernimpuls. Meran/Klagenfurt: Alpha
Beta/ Drava 2004.
~ Judt, Tony: Postwar. A history of Europe since 1945. London 2005.
~ Judt, Tony & Lacorne, Denis: Language, Nation and State: Identity politics
in a multilingual age. New York 2004.
~ Jung, Matthias: Hermeneutik zur Einführung. Hamburg 2001.
~ Kubanek-German, Angelika: Kindgemäßer Fremdsprachenunterricht. Band 1:
Ideengeschichte. Münster 2001.
~ Maak, Gert: In Europa. Eine Reise durch das 20. Jahrhundert. Berlin
2005 (original niederl.)
~ Schiller, Friedrich: Über die ästhetische Erziehung des Menschen.
~ Schiller, Friedrich: Geschichte des Dreißigjährigen Krieges.
~ Westerman, Frank: De Graanrepubliek. Illustrierte, broschierte Ausgabe.
Amsterdam: Olympus 2005.
~ Beck Verlag: Länderreihen Exil-Romane und Autobiographien.